Rivalries in the Balkans: The Second War's Explosive Origins
The Balkans, endowed with rich natural resources and strategic waterways, making it a geopolitically important area home to a diverse array of ethnicities, religions, and historical influences, encompasses nations like Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Greece, Kosovo, Montenegro, North Macedonia, the European parts of Turkey, and portions of Croatia and Serbia. This region has a long and complex history, which had been under Ottoman rule for centuries, became highly volatile as nationalist movements sought independence, fueling regional instability. This sparked conflicts as major European powers like Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Germany competed for power and control, leading to a series of Balkan Wars. These unresolved regional tensions and power struggles ultimately contributed to the outbreak of World War I in 1914.
In the late 19th century, the newly independent Balkan nations of Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria, and Montenegro sought to expand their territories by taking control of the declining Ottoman Empire's region of the Eastern Rumelia (Modern Southern Bulgaria), Albania, Macedonia, and Thrace. The Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913 were a pivotal moment in the history of the Balkan Peninsula. The first war saw the Balkan states unite against the Ottomans, leading to significant territorial losses for the crumbling empire.
However, the second Balkan War in 1913 was marked by conflict between the former allies. Bulgaria was in conflict with the countries it had previously partnered with during the First Balkan War. This resulted in Bulgaria losing even more of its territory. This unstable situation, rooted in the ambitions of the Balkan nations and the decline of Ottoman power, set the stage for the outbreak of the Second Balkan War.
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| Image Credit: picryl.com, First Balkan Crisis |
💻 Table of Contents:
- The Unification of Bulgaria: A Key Moment in Balkan History
- The First Balkan Crisis of 1908 & Russia’s Strategic Presence
- Post-War Rivalries: And Collapse of the Balkan League
- Bulgaria's Struggle for Ethnic Bulgarian Lands
- Tsar Ferdinand I and the Pivotal Second Balkan War
- Indian Connection to the Balkan Wars: The Red Crescent Mission
The Unification of Bulgaria: A Key Moment in Balkan History
Bulgaria was part of the Ottoman Empire for 500 years, until it revolted in 1876. The Treaty of San Stefano which ended the Russo-Turkish War (1877-78), established a large Bulgarian state. However, concerned about Bulgaria's growing power, the Congress of Berlin in 1878 redrew the borders, creating a smaller Bulgarian principality and designating the region between the Balkans and Rhodope Mountains as the autonomous Ottoman province of Eastern Rumelia. The third major Bulgarian region, Macedonia, remained directly under Ottoman control, despite Bulgaria's emergence from centuries of foreign rule.
With the political realities at the time, the Bulgarians residing in the Principality of Bulgaria, Eastern Rumelia, and Macedonia inevitably yearned for the unification of these Bulgarian-populated territories into a single, unified nation, and in 1885, Bulgaria took a significant step toward this goal by merging the Principality of Bulgaria with the autonomous Ottoman province of Eastern Rumelia.
This unification was organized by the Bulgarian Secret Central Revolutionary Committee (BSCRC) and supported by Prince Alexander I. The movement culminated in a series of revolts and a decisive coup on September 18, 1885. Despite facing diplomatic resistance, particularly from Russia and Austria-Hungary, the unification was ultimately successful. The Ottoman Empire, under pressure from international powers like Russia and the United Kingdom, chose not to intervene militarily.
International reactions were mixed. Russia opposed the unification due to strained relations with Prince Alexander I, while the United Kingdom eventually supported it to counter Russian influence. Austria-Hungary, fearing the rise of a large Slavic state in the Balkans, and Greece, concerned about its territorial ambitions, were against the unification.
The unification led to the Serbo-Bulgarian War, where Bulgaria successfully defended its new borders. The conflict ended with the Treaty of Bucharest in 1886, which preserved the unified Bulgaria. The Ottoman Empire formally recognized the unification through the Tophane Agreement, acknowledging Prince Alexander I as the Governor-General of Eastern Rumelia.
The First Balkan Crisis of 1908 & Russia’s Strategic Presence:
After the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878, the Congress of Berlin was held, where the Great Powers of Europe (including Austria-Hungary, Russia, Britain, France, and Germany) sought to reorganize the territories of the declining Ottoman Empire in the Balkans. At the 1878 Congress of Berlin, the Great Powers allowed Austria-Hungary to occupy and govern the Ottoman territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina. This was a strategic move by Austria-Hungary to expand its influence in the Balkans and counter the growing power of Serbia and Russia in the region.
Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia in 1908 during the Bosnian Crisis. This was because the Austro-Hungarian Empire desired control over the entire Balkan region for strategic and resource purposes, and also wanted to prevent other states from acquiring influence in the Balkans. Initially it intended to be temporary, became a permanent annexation when Austria-Hungary officially declared the provinces as part of its territories on 5 October 1908, leading to the outbreak of the First Balkan Crisis. This move by Austria-Hungary was viewed with suspicion and resentment by the other Balkan states, as well as Russia, which saw it as a threat to their own regional ambitions. The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina was one of the contributing factors that led to the outbreak of the First Balkan War in 1912 and ultimately the First World War in 1914.
The Bosnian Annexation Crisis of 1908 is often seen as the pivotal moment in Russia's shift in Balkan policy. Before this event, Russia worked closely with Austria-Hungary to address Balkan issues. However, when Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, Russia abandoned this cooperative stance and began fostering alliances among Balkan states aimed at countering both the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary. To understand Russia's changing approach, it's also essential to look at its relations with Balkan states, particularly Serbia and Bulgaria.
Russia had previously supported the establishment of Bulgaria as an autonomous principality under Ottoman rule. However, the unification of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia in 1885 went against Russia's preferences and interests in the region. Russia was concerned that the unified Bulgaria would come under Western European, particularly German, influence, which would diminish Russia's own influence in the Balkans. There were also disagreements between Bulgaria and Russia over the leadership and governance of the newly unified state.
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However, this strained relationship started to improve in 1894, following the death of Tsar Alexander III and changes in Bulgaria's government. Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria took significant steps to secure Russian support, including christening his son in the Orthodox faith, which eventually led to his recognition as Bulgaria's legitimate ruler. This improved relationship set the stage for Russia's diplomatic efforts to unite the Slavic Balkan states, despite the major obstacle of the Macedonian Question, which highlighted the conflicting territorial ambitions of Serbia and Bulgaria.
Christophor Khesapchiev's memoirs, as a Bulgarian diplomat, offer unique insights into the secret negotiations (a partition of Macedonia) between Serbia and Bulgaria in 1904-1905. These negotiations led to a significant improvement in the relations between the two countries. These negotiations, largely influenced by Russia, revealed that Russia had already been pursuing anti-Austrian alliances well before the Bosnian crisis. Khesapchiev's involvement in these discussions allowed him to access confidential documents and correspondence, offering a behind-the-scenes view of how Russia played a covert but crucial role in bringing Serbia and Bulgaria together.
Post-War Rivalries: And Collapse of the Balkan League
After the Crimean War (1853-1856), Russia realized the Great Powers' determination to restrict its access to the Mediterranean. In response, Russia pursued an ambitious plan to extend its influence in the Balkans. Russia worked to pressure the formation of the Balkan League in 1912, aiming to establish friendly, Slavic-aligned states like Bulgaria and Serbia to counter Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman influence in the region. This alliance between Serbia and Bulgaria was driven by the Albanian uprising and territorial disputes, and aimed to create a Russian-aligned buffer against the region's major powers. Greece joined for its naval strength, crucial in limiting Ottoman reinforcements, while Montenegro's participation solidified the alliance.
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| Image Credit: Picryl.com, Balkan League and Hagia Sophia Postcard |
But the unity of the Balkan League did not last long after the war’s end. Disputes over territorial divisions, particularly in Macedonia, strained relations among the victorious allies. In the aftermath of the First Balkan War in 1912-1913, Greece and Serbia sought to solidify their territorial control over Macedonia. This led to the signing of the Greek-Serbian Alliance on June 1, 1913, which built upon a secret protocol agreed to in April 1913. The secret protocol established a defensive alliance between Greece and Serbia, aimed at securing their contiguous borders and mutual support in negotiations over the former Ottoman territories in the region. Specifically, the agreement outlined detailed boundary lines dividing up Macedonia between the two countries. It also committed Greece and Serbia to provide military assistance to one another if they faced conflict with Bulgaria, a fellow member of the Balkan League. The previously agreed upon partition of Macedonian territory between Bulgaria and Serbia was disrupted by the newly formed Greek-Serbian alliance over territorial issues, which created more division and discord within the Balkan League.
The secretive nature of the Greek-Serbian Alliance reflected the growing tensions and unresolved territorial disputes among the Balkan League members in the aftermath of their victory over the Ottomans. This alliance further complicated the regional situation, as the former allies now eyed each other warily over the territorial gains from the war. The seeds were thus sown for the outbreak of the Second Balkan War just a few months later in June 1913.
Serbia and Bulgaria had previously agreed on a secret protocol to divide northern Macedonia between them. However, during the conflict, Serbian forces advanced beyond the agreed borders, while Greek troops occupied Thessaloniki and extended their influence northward. Bulgaria’s demand for Serbia to follow to their pre-war agreement was met with Serbian resistance. The Serbs, already dissatisfied with the Great Powers' pressure to relinquish their gains in northern Albania, refused to comply. This led to the dissolution of the Serbo-Bulgarian alliance.
With Bulgaria viewed as a potential threat, Serbia sought to solidify its position by negotiating with Greece, which also protected anxieties about Bulgarian expansion. In response to the growing tension, Greece and Serbia formed a secret defensive alliance, describing their mutual border and agreeing on joint action in the event of an attack by Bulgaria or Austria-Hungary.
Bulgaria's Struggle for Ethnic Bulgarian Lands:
After Bulgaria's defeat in the Second Balkan War, the Bulgarian people living in the territories that were lost to Greece, Macedonia, Serbia, Romania, and the Ottoman Empire faced significant consequences. This defeat had profound political and social implications for Bulgaria. The loss of these ethnic Bulgarian lands fueled a deep sense of national grievance and a desire for revenge, which later influenced Bulgaria's decision to join the Central Powers during World War I.
The Bulgarian populations in these areas were drastically reduced through these forced population transfers and expulsions. The uprooting and displacement of these Bulgarian communities added to the turmoil and instability in the Balkans in the aftermath of the war. The redrawn borders and forced migrations reshaped the ethnic composition of Southeastern Europe, sowing seeds for future tensions and conflicts in the region.
The enormous personal sacrifices and losses experienced by these Bulgarian populations during and after the Second Balkan War contributed to a deep sense of national trauma for Bulgaria overall. The Bulgarian civilians living outside of Bulgaria proper bore the brunt of the country's defeat, facing displacement, expulsion, and the disruption of their communities and lives. This experience further fueled Bulgaria's resentment and desire to reclaim its lost territories, which would have significant implications in the years to come.
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As a condition for joining the Central Powers, Bulgaria was promised the right to reclaim lost territories. On September 6, 1915, Bulgaria signed a secret agreement and military convention with the Central Powers. By January 1916, Bulgaria declared its war aims: the unification of the Bulgarian nation within its historic and ethnic borders, including access to the Adriatic.
Tsar Ferdinand I and the Pivotal Second Balkan War:
Ferdinand I of Bulgaria played a pivotal role during the Second Balkan War in 1913. Initially, he had joined forces with Serbia, Greece, and Montenegro in the First Balkan War to drive the Ottoman Empire out of the Balkans. However, tensions arose over territorial disputes, particularly regarding Vardar Macedonia (located in the Vardar River basin, which was predominantly inhabited by Bulgarians at the time), which Bulgaria claimed but Serbia refused to relinquish.
Frustrated by these disputes and eager to expand Bulgaria's territory, Ferdinand launched an attack on Serbia and Greece on June 29th, 1913, marking the beginning of the Second Balkan War. Ferdinand's decision to go to war was driven by his ambition to create a powerful Bulgarian state, which he envisioned as a "new Byzantium."
This offensive was motivated by Bulgaria's desire to assert control over contested regions in Macedonia. However, the attack backfired as Serbia and Greece quickly responded, and Montenegro soon joined them. As the conflict escalated, Bulgaria found itself increasingly isolated. Romania, seeking to expand its influence, declared war on Bulgaria and invaded from the north, while the Ottoman Empire, eager to reclaim lost territories, attacked from the southeast. Facing enemies on multiple fronts, Bulgaria's forces were overwhelmed, leading to significant territorial losses.
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| Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons, Second Balkan War |
The war concluded with the Treaty of Bucharest in August 1913, which severely curtailed Bulgaria's ambitions. Under the treaty, Bulgaria was forced to cede large portions of its claimed territories to Serbia, Greece, and Romania. The Ottomans also regained parts of Eastern Thrace. The Treaty not only redrew the map of the Balkans, but also sowed the seeds for future conflicts in the region. It left Bulgaria dissatisfied with the territorial losses, which subsequently led to its alignment with the Central Powers in the following years.
Indian Connection to the Balkan Wars: The Red Crescent Mission
The Indian Muslim political landscape in the early 20th century was characterized by a strong pan-Islamic sentiment, particularly towards the Ottoman Empire. This sentiment would later find expression in organized political movements, such as the founding of the Muslim League.
The origins of this political solidarity can be traced to various agitations, including the Khilafat Movement. However, the Indian Red Crescent Mission to Turkey during the Balkan Wars laid the groundwork for political sympathy towards the Ottoman cause among India's Muslims, eventually leading to the emergence of a local freedom movement.
The Indian Red Crescent Mission's engagement with the Ottoman lands during the Balkan Wars helped to foster a deeper connection between the Indian Muslim community and the plight of the Ottoman Empire. This connection would go on to shape the political development of the Indian Muslim community in the years to come.
Conclusion:
The Second Balkan War not only marked a significant turning point in the history of Southeastern Europe but also reshaped the geopolitical landscape of the Balkans. Bulgaria's ambitious attempt to expand its territory ended in a crushing defeat, leading to the loss of large portions of its land to Serbia, Greece, Romania, and the Ottoman Empire. The Treaty of Bucharest, which concluded the war, left Bulgaria deeply resentful and contributed to the region's ongoing instability.
The redrawing of borders and the rise of new tensions among the Balkan states set the stage for further conflicts in the years to come. Bulgaria's dissatisfaction with its territorial losses and the broader rivalries among the Balkan nations played a crucial role in the lead-up to World War I, illustrating the enduring impact of the Second Balkan War on both regional and global history.
